Introduction
Have you ever wondered why the same Chinese historical figure appears under different names in various documents? Why was that brilliant strategist known as both "Zhuge Liang" and "Kongming"? Why did Confucius have multiple appellations like "Kong Qiu," "Zhongni," and "Confucius"?
The answer lies hidden in one of humanity's most intricate naming systems. For thousands of years, educated Chinese individuals did not have just one name—they could have five, each used in different social and ceremonial contexts. This was not chaos, but an elegant manifestation. Each name conveyed different information: your lineage, family branch, personal identity, social status, and even your self-chosen life philosophy.
Today, I will share with you the fascinating system of Chinese names—how our ancestors constructed this complex yet logical system, what role it played in history, and what imprints it has left on modern China. Let us journey back to ancient times and uncover the mysteries of Xing (姓), Shi (氏), Ming (名), Zi (字), and Hao (号).
Xing (姓): The Ancient Clan Marker—Source of Lineage
In ancient times, China was comprised of many tribes settled along the Yellow River, which is why the Yellow River is known as the "Mother River."
These tribes often used totem animals as symbols, such as bears or tigers. After generations, these totems gradually became the identity markers of the tribe. Members of the Bear tribe naturally inherited "Bear" as their common identifier—this was the prototype of Xing (姓), the clan name representing common bloodline.
The Chinese character "姓" itself reveals its ancient origins. It is composed of 女 (nǚ, female) and 生 (shēng, birth/life), reflecting that the earliest Chinese surnames were formed during a matriarchal society. At that time, people typically only recognized the mother's bloodline, so children belonged to their mother's clan and inherited her Xing.
Many ancient clan names feature the "女" (female) radical, such as: Ji (姬), Jiang (姜), Si (姒), Ying (嬴), Yun (妘), Gui (媯), Yao (姚), Ji (姞). These were not just names but also imprints of matriarchal lineage, marking an era when families were passed down through women.
Figure 1: Early forms of clan name characters in oracle bone script. Many ancient clan names include the "女" radical, reflecting their matriarchal origins more than three millennia ago.
Those with the same Xing were considered to share a common ancestor and bloodline. This also led to an important social rule: no marriage between people of the same Xing. This exogamous principle helped ancient people avoid inbreeding and fostered alliances between different clans. Xing was sacred and unchangeable, accompanying an individual from birth to death.
As society transitioned to a patriarchal structure, children began inheriting their father's Xing, but the core meaning remained unchanged: Xing always signified an individual's bloodline identity within the kinship network.
Figure 2: A traditional portrait of Confucius (given name Qiu, courtesy name Zhongni). As one of history's most influential philosophers, his naming structure exemplifies the traditional naming system: Kong as Shi, Qiu as Ming, Zhongni as Zi.
Shi (氏): The Family Branch Marker—Symbol of Social Status
As clan populations grew and migrated, a new problem arose: too many people shared the same Xing. To distinguish different branches within the same bloodline, Shi (氏) emerged.
If Xing answered "Which ancient clan do I belong to?", then Shi explained "Which branch of that clan do I belong to?". The origins of Shi were diverse: it could be the family's place of residence (e.g., "Ximen" - West Gate), an enfeoffed territory (e.g., "Zhao," "Chu"), a hereditary official position (e.g., "Sima" - Master of Horses, "Situ" - Minister of Education), or a title earned for merit.
Take the legendary Yellow Emperor as an example: he originally belonged to the Ji Xing, but due to changes in his place of residence, he had different Shi designations: born in Xuanyuan, called Xuanyuan Shi; grew up in Youxiong, called Youxiong Shi; later resided by the Ji River, called Ji Shi. Xing remained constant, while Shi could adjust with circumstances, precisely demonstrating its social and flexible nature.
The Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE) was the zenith of the Xing-Shi system's development. The Zhou royal house was of the Ji Xing, but its princes were enfeoffed in various regions, creating new Shi. For example:
- Tang Shuyu was enfeoffed in Tang, and his descendants were the Ji Xing Tang Shi;
- His descendants moved the capital to Jin, changing their appellation to Jin Shi;
- Other offspring were enfeoffed in places like Yang and Jia, giving rise to Yang Shi and Jia Shi.
By then, the aristocracy generally practiced a dual system: Xing identified bloodline and determined marriage; Shi clarified branches and displayed status.
Merging: How Xing and Shi Became One
The distinction between Xing and Shi functioned effectively for millennia—but only among the aristocracy. Commoners had neither Xing nor Shi, usually being referred to only by their personal names or as "son of so-and-so."
The unification of the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE) changed all of this. Qin Shi Huang abolished enfeoffment and implemented the commandery system, leading to the collapse of the hereditary aristocracy, and the social foundation of Shi disappeared. After losing their fiefdoms and titles, many descendants of nobles gradually passed down their Shi as a family identifier, and Xing and Shi began to merge.
For example, "Ji Xing Jin Shi" simplified to "Jin," and "Zi Xing Kong Shi" evolved into "Kong." Because Shi was more specific and closer to actual social identity than the ancient Xing, most later common surnames actually originated from Shi.
This also explains why Ji, as the Xing of the Zhou royal house, is relatively rare today. Most descendants of the Ji Xing adopted their branch Shi as their surname, such as Wang, Wei, Zhao, Han, Yang, etc.
By the Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), clan names had become universal, with everyone possessing a patrilineally inherited family name. The modern Chinese term "Xingshi (姓氏)" thus emerged, combining the two to specifically refer to what we call a "surname" today.
Ming (名): The Personal Identifier Bestowed by Parents
Ming (名) is the first appellation a person receives after birth, representing the most private identity marker. According to the "Book of Rites," an infant was named by the father three months after birth, with names often derived from characteristics at birth, family expectations, or significant events. For example, Confucius's Ming was "Qiu," because the top of his head resembled a hill.
The use of Ming was subject to strict etiquette: only parents, elders, or very close individuals could address someone directly by their Ming. Casual use of the Ming by peers or juniors was considered impolite or even offensive. When referring to oneself, using Ming was a sign of humility, as Zhuge Liang would say, "Though Liang is untalented..."
This reverence for Ming reached its peak with emperors, forming the "taboo" system: characters used in an emperor's name could not be directly used or written by commoners, often requiring alteration or omission of strokes to show respect.
Zi (字): The Courtesy Name, for Social Interaction
Since Ming was so private, how did one properly address others in daily social interactions? The answer was Zi (字), a supplement to the Ming. Ming and Zi were interconnected, so Zi was also known as a "courtesy name" or "style name."
Men underwent the "capping ceremony" at twenty, and women the "hairpinning ceremony" at fifteen. At this point, they formally received their Zi, symbolizing their entry into adulthood and society. Zi became the formal name used in social settings; friends, colleagues, and subordinates all addressed one another by their Zi as a sign of respect.
Zi was typically linked in meaning to Ming, either extending, supplementing, or echoing it. For example:
- Zhuge Liang: Ming Liang (bright), Zi Kongming (very bright);
- Confucius: Ming Qiu (hill), Zi Zhongni ("second son," related to Niqiu hill);
- Liu Bei: Ming Bei (complete/prepared), Zi Xuande (profound virtue);
- Cao Cao: Ming Cao (moral conduct), Zi Mengde (virtue of the eldest son).
In historical documents, figures often appear by their Zi, which is a manifestation of etiquette. It's important to note that one should never use one's Zi when referring to oneself, as it would appear arrogant and impolite.
*Figure 3: A portrait of Zhuge Liang (courtesy name Kongming), the eminent strategist of the Three Kingdoms period. His Zi "Kongming" strengthened and elevated the meaning of his Ming "Liang," typically demonstrating the supplementary and amplifying role of "Zi" to "Ming."
Hao (号): The Self-Chosen Name, Reflection of Aspirations
Hao (号) is an alternative name chosen by an individual, similar to a "pen name" or "sobriquet," often used to express personal aspirations, circumstances, or philosophical attitudes. It was mostly adopted by literati, artists, and recluses, and could be changed at different stages of life.
For example:
- Su Shi, while exiled in Huangzhou, farmed on the Eastern Slope, styling himself as Dongpo Jushi ("Resident of the Eastern Slope");
- Tao Yuanming, having retired to the countryside, planted five willows by his dwelling, hence styling himself as Wuliu Xiansheng ("Mr. Five Willows");
- Wang Yangming, having attained enlightenment in Yangming Cave, thus adopted Yangming as his Hao.
Many became famous by their Hao, such as "Su Dongpo" and "Wang Yangming," whose appellations are far more widely known than their birth names. Hao was not bound by ancestral law, being purely an extension of personal spirit and identity.
Figure 4: Diagram illustrating the five elements of the traditional Chinese naming system. From top to bottom: Xing—Lineage clan identifier; Shi—Family branch identifier; Ming—Personal name given at birth; Zi—Social name received at adulthood; Hao—Self-chosen name expressing aspirations.
From Ancient Times to Today: Simplification and Inheritance
How did this intricate five-element naming system evolve later on?
With the dramatic changes in Chinese society in the early 20th century—the end of imperial rule, the collapse of feudal etiquette—the custom of adopting a Zi gradually disappeared after the May Fourth Movement (1919), being deemed a "feudal remnant." Today, most Chinese only retain the Surname + Given Name structure, for example: Li Ming (Lǐ Míng), Zhang Xiaohong (Zhāng Xiǎohóng). Compound surnames like Sima, Ouyang, etc., still exist, but the distinction between Xing and Shi is no longer made.
The tradition of Hao occasionally continues in fields such as calligraphy, painting, and literature, but it is no longer a societal norm. Nevertheless, ancient wisdom still leaves traces in modern customs: children generally still take their father's surname; generational characters are preserved in some families; and when reading classical literature, people can still appreciate the cultural connotations of Zi and Hao.
Interestingly, many Chinese use English names for international communication, which functionally resembles the modern Hao—an auxiliary name used in specific contexts.
The ancient naming system was not eliminated because of its complexity, but because the social framework it depended on had already changed. Today's simpler naming system is well-suited for a more egalitarian and efficient modern society.
Finding Your Chinese Name
Having understood the profound heritage of traditional Chinese naming, would you also like to have a Chinese name of your own?
Choosing a Chinese name is not just about transliteration; it's about finding a combination of characters that balances sound and meaning, adheres to cultural logic, and reflects personal characteristics. A good Chinese name should feel natural and elegant to native speakers and carry beautiful connotations.
If you are learning Chinese, planning to work in China, or simply drawn to Chinese culture, having an authentic Chinese name will become a link to this long-standing tradition. Our Chinese name generator tool is designed precisely based on the historical and cultural principles mentioned above, helping you find a Chinese appellation that is truly "yours."
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We hope that through this article, you can gain a deeper understanding of the wisdom with which Chinese people constructed identity, family, and social relationships through names. The next time you encounter a Chinese historical or literary figure with multiple names, you will be able to discern the etiquette and emotions behind them: it is not chaos, but a sophisticated system, spanning thousands of years, that integrates respect, identity, and self-expression....
