Introduction
If "Game of Thrones" tells the bloody struggle of seven great families for the Iron Throne on the continent of Westeros, then China's "Bai Jia Xing" (Hundred Family Surnames) is another form of "power game"—it condenses the power structure of the entire political landscape in the early Northern Song Dynasty with just four characters: "Zhao Qian Sun Li."
In 10th-century China, Emperor Taizu of Song, Zhao Kuangyin, had just unified the realm. Qian Chu, the ruler of the Wuyue Kingdom, was hesitating whether to pledge allegiance to the Song Dynasty, while Li Yu, the last emperor of Southern Tang, was still writing verses like "How much sorrow can one have?" in his Jinling palace. In this era of momentous change, a scholar from the Wuyue region picked up his brush and compiled a seemingly simple primer. Yet, in its opening four characters, he listed all four of the most important political forces of the time.
This was no coincidence, but design. The ordering of "Bai Jia Xing" was not based on population size, but rather a meticulously planned "political alignment." A thousand years later, as we reread these surnames, we can almost still hear the echoes of power shifts in the early Northern Song Dynasty.
I. What is "Bai Jia Xing"?
In Chinese culture, if one were to choose one of the most widely influential primers, "Bai Jia Xing" would undoubtedly be a strong candidate. It is known as the "Three Hundred Thousand" along with "San Zi Jing" (Three Character Classic) and "Qian Zi Wen" (Thousand Character Classic), forming the three essential textbooks for children in ancient China. But unlike "San Zi Jing" which teaches morals, and "Qian Zi Wen" which teaches characters, "Bai Jia Xing" has a more special mission—it teaches children the answer to "who are you."
Compiled in a Turbulent Era
"Bai Jia Xing" emerged in the early Northern Song Dynasty, around the late 10th century. According to textual research by Wang Mingqing, a scholar from the Southern Song Dynasty, the book was compiled by a Confucian scholar from the Qiantang region (present-day Hangzhou, Zhejiang) of the Wuyue Kingdom. This was a crucial turning point in Chinese history: in 960 AD, Zhao Kuangyin established the Song Dynasty through the "Chenqiao Mutiny," ending the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period of division. However, not all regions had yet been incorporated into the Song Dynasty's territory. The Wuyue Kingdom and Southern Tang, two powerful regional regimes, still coexisted with the Song Dynasty.
It was during such a period of political instability and subtle power struggles among various forces that "Bai Jia Xing" was born. Its author, being in the Wuyue Kingdom, had to both show respect for the Song Emperor who unified the realm and save face for his own kingdom's ruler. This delicate political balance is reflected in the opening order of "Bai Jia Xing."
Figure 1: Political map of the early Northern Song Dynasty.
The Wisdom of Four-Character Rhyming Verses
The most unique aspect of "Bai Jia Xing" is its literary form: four characters per line, with every line rhyming. It begins with:
"Zhao Qian Sun Li (zhào qián sūn lǐ) Zhou Wu Zheng Wang (zhōu wú zhèng wáng) Feng Chen Chu Wei (féng chén chǔ wèi) Jiang Shen Han Yang (jiǎng shěn hán yáng)"
This arrangement appears simple but is remarkably clever. The rhythm of four characters per line makes it pleasant to recite and easy for children to memorize. Similar to Western nursery rhymes, this sense of rhythm is key to memorization.
The original "Bai Jia Xing" included 411 surnames; later generations continuously added to it, eventually forming a version containing 504 surnames, including 444 single-character surnames and 60 double-character surnames. "Bai Jia Xing" doesn't literally mean only a hundred surnames, but rather it's an approximation, similar to the English usage of "hundreds of," indicating "many."
Cultural Influence Spanning a Millennium
"Bai Jia Xing" is more than just a list of surnames. In the history of Chinese education, it was an essential primer for every child. For nearly a thousand years, from the Song Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, countless Chinese children began their academic lives by reciting "Zhao Qian Sun Li."
The significance of this educational tradition is profound. In the West, people might learn about their family identity by studying family crests or family trees. In China, the surname itself is the most important identifier. Learning "Bai Jia Xing" helps children build a sense of identity with their family and clan, understanding their place within the vast Chinese social network.
Interestingly, although "Bai Jia Xing" has been passed down for nearly a millennium, its order has never changed. Even during the Ming Dynasty, when the emperor's surname was "Zhu" rather than "Zhao"; and even during the Qing Dynasty, when the rulers were Manchu rather than Han, "Zhao Qian Sun Li" remained the opening four characters. This historical inertia has made "Bai Jia Xing" a frozen historical snapshot, permanently recording the political climate of the early Northern Song Dynasty.
II. The Political Mystery Behind the "Zhao Qian Sun Li" Order
Now, let's go back to late 10th-century China and look at the stories of power behind these four surnames.
Zhao: The Emperor's Surname
The surname "Zhao" is placed first, for a reason that couldn't be more obvious: it was the imperial surname of the Northern Song royal family.
In 960 AD, Zhao Kuangyin, a general of the Later Zhou Dynasty, staged a coup at Chenqiao (present-day Kaifeng, Henan province), was acclaimed emperor, and established the Song Dynasty, known historically as Emperor Taizu of Song. He ended the period of division known as the "Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms," which began in 907 AD, and reunified most of China.
In ancient China, it was a convention to place the ruling emperor's surname first; this practice was called "honoring the imperial surname." This is akin to European medieval royalty always sitting in the highest position in the hall, and all nobles having to bow to the king. In fact, the Ming Dynasty's "Qian Jia Xing" (Thousand Family Surnames) placed the surname "Zhu" first, because the Ming emperors were surnamed Zhu.
Figure 2: Portrait of Emperor Taizu of Song, Zhao Kuangyin. In 960 AD, Zhao Kuangyin staged a coup to replace the Later Zhou and established the Song Dynasty, historically known as the "Chenqiao Mutiny."
Qian: The Wise Choice of a Small Kingdom
The surname "Qian" is ranked second, which is interesting. It represents the imperial surname of the Wuyue Kingdom.
The Wuyue Kingdom was a regional regime during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, established by Qian Liu (Liú) in 907 AD, with its rule encompassing present-day Zhejiang, southern Jiangsu, and other areas. Qian Liu was a legendary figure in Chinese history; he was not only an outstanding military commander but also an enlightened ruler. He implemented a policy of protecting the territory and ensuring peace for the people, making Wuyue one of the most prosperous and stable regions during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.
However, by the late 10th century, the Wuyue Kingdom faced a difficult choice: to maintain independence or submit to the powerful Song Dynasty? Qian Chu, Qian Liu's grandson and the last king of Wuyue, was a pragmatic ruler. He saw that the Song Dynasty had grown strong, and resistance would only lead to war and suffering. Thus, in 978 AD, Qian Chu voluntarily "ceded his territory to Song," peacefully incorporating the Wuyue Kingdom into the Song Dynasty's domain.
This was a rare peaceful unification in Chinese history. Emperor Taizong of Song (Zhao Kuangyin's brother) greatly admired Qian Chu's pragmatism, enfeoffed him as a king, and preserved the status and wealth of the Wuyue Qian clan. Therefore, placing the surname "Qian" second was both a show of respect for a local regional regime and an acknowledgment of the Qian clan's contribution to unification.
Sun: The Queen's Glory
The surname "Sun" is ranked third, and here a historical detail needs clarification.
According to academic research, the "Sun" here does not refer to the principal consort of Qian Liu, the founding ruler of Wuyue (Qian Liu's principal consort was surnamed Wu, historically known as "Empress Zhuangmu, Lady Wu"), but rather to Sun Taizhen, the principal consort of Qian Chu, the last king of Wuyue.
After Qian Chu incorporated the Wuyue Kingdom into the Song Dynasty, Sun Taizhen also accompanied her husband into the Song imperial court, becoming a respected noblewoman. Placing her surname third was a dual show of respect for the Qian royal family and its consort.
This practice of separately listing the surname of a queen or noblewoman was common in ancient China. It's similar to how medieval European queens would retain their maiden family names, signifying the political importance of marriage alliances. In fact, the four surnames immediately following "Zhao Qian Sun Li"—"Zhou Wu Zheng Wang"—are, according to textual research, the surnames of other consorts of Qian Liu, the founding ruler of the Wuyue Kingdom. This further confirms that the arrangement of "Bai Jia Xing" was centered around the perspective of the Wuyue Kingdom.
Li: The Tragic Song of a Poet Emperor
The surname "Li" is ranked fourth, representing the imperial surname of Southern Tang.
Southern Tang was another powerful regional regime during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, established in 937 AD, with its capital at Jinling (present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu). Li Yu, the last emperor of Southern Tang, is one of the most famous poet-emperor's in Chinese history; his ci poems, such as "How much sorrow can one have, just like a river of spring water flowing east," and "When will spring flowers and autumn moon end, how much of the past is known," have been passed down through the ages.
However, Li Yu was not a good emperor. In 975 AD, Emperor Taizu of Song, Zhao Kuangyin, led his army south and annihilated Southern Tang. Li Yu and his family were captured and brought to Kaifeng, the Song capital, where he was enfeoffed as the "Marquis of Disobedience" (meaning "Marquis who defied Heaven's mandate"), a title filled with bitter irony. Ultimately, Li Yu died of melancholy in Kaifeng; it is rumored that he was poisoned by Emperor Taizong of Song.
Figure 3: Portrait of Li Yu, Last Emperor of Southern Tang. In 975 AD, the Song army broke through Jinling, and Southern Tang fell. Li Yu surrendered and was captured and brought to Bianjing, where he was enfeoffed as the "Marquis of Disobedience" by Emperor Taizu of Song, beginning a life of humiliation as a captive. Although Li Yu was inept at politics, his artistic talent was extraordinary. He excelled in calligraphy, was skilled in painting, understood musical temperament, and had considerable achievements in poetry and prose, with his ci poems being particularly outstanding.
The Logic of Power Ranking
To summarize, the ranking logic for "Zhao Qian Sun Li" is:
- Zhao — Emperor of the Song Dynasty who unified the realm, representing supreme power
- Qian — The King of Wuyue who peacefully submitted, representing a regional separatist force
- Sun — The principal consort of the King of Wuyue, representing royal in-laws
- Li — The annihilated ruler of Southern Tang, a former rival
This is not a simple list of surnames, but a meticulously crafted political relationship network map. It demonstrates the wisdom of the author of "Bai Jia Xing": to show reverence to the central dynasty, yet also leave glory for the local regime; to acknowledge the current power structure, yet also record the complexity of history.
This ranking method stands in stark contrast to modern surname rankings based on population size. If we look at modern Chinese surname rankings, the top five are: Wang, Li, Zhang, Liu, Chen. Yet, in "Bai Jia Xing," the rankings of these major modern surnames are much lower: Li is 4th, Wang is 8th, Chen is 10th, Zhang is 24th, and Liu is surprisingly ranked 252nd!
Scholars believe that the surname Liu's low ranking might be related to the fact that the rulers of Northern Han, a rival regime to the Song Dynasty, were surnamed Liu. This once again proves that the ordering of "Bai Jia Xing" was not arbitrary, but a precise design filled with political considerations.
III. The Great Impact of a Small Book
Why has a primer compiled a thousand years ago had such a profound impact on Chinese culture? There are multiple reasons behind this.
Educational Function: Life Beginning with "Zhao Qian Sun Li"
In ancient China, a child's education typically began this way: at four or five years old, they would first learn "Bai Jia Xing" and "Qian Zi Wen" to recognize characters and become familiar with surnames; a little older, they would learn "San Zi Jing" to understand basic moral concepts and historical knowledge; and only then would they begin to study classics like the Four Books and Five Classics.
As the first primer, the role of "Bai Jia Xing" was not just about character recognition. It taught children from a young age that the surname is a person's most important identity marker. In Chinese culture, when you introduce yourself, you always state your surname first, then your given name. Expressions like "My surname is Zhang" or "I am from the Li family" clearly place an individual within the family network.
This contrasts with modern Western individualistic culture. In the West, people typically introduce their first name, then their last name, emphasizing individual uniqueness. Chinese people, however, state their surname first, emphasizing which family they come from, and which group they belong to. "Bai Jia Xing" is a foundational textbook for this cultural concept.
Cultural Transmission: Bloodline Identity Behind Surnames
Another important function of "Bai Jia Xing" is that it strengthened Chinese people's sense of identity with their family and clan.
In traditional Chinese society, having the same surname often implies a distant kinship. Even if two people live far apart and have never met, as long as they discover they share the same surname, they will feel a strange sense of closeness. Expressions like "We are one family" or "We were one family five hundred years ago" are very common in China.
This surname identity played an important role in social organization throughout history. In times without modern government and legal systems, families and clans were people's most important social networks. If you encountered difficulties in a foreign place, finding someone with the same surname could lead to help. Many major surnames have their own ancestral halls and family genealogies, recording centuries or even millennia of family history.
"Bai Jia Xing," by listing 504 surnames, allows every Chinese person to find their place within it. This is like a vast family map that includes all Chinese people.
Political Symbol: The Memory of Power
From a deeper perspective, "Bai Jia Xing" is also a political symbol. Its ordering method embodies a Chinese tradition: power determines status, and status determines order.
This tradition of "ranking by power" has manifested in various ways throughout Chinese history. For example, at ancient banquets, seating arrangements strictly followed status; in official documents, names were ordered to reflect hierarchy; and even within families, the rule of seniority was strictly observed.
"Bai Jia Xing" taught this hierarchical concept to every Chinese child. It tells people: the emperor's surname is always first, followed by noble surnames, and then the surnames of common people. This education, while helping to maintain social order, also reinforced the concept of hierarchy.
Interestingly, while the order of "Bai Jia Xing" originated from politics, its influence transcended politics. Even after the fall of the Song Dynasty, and even though the Zhao imperial family no longer ruled China, people still recited "Zhao Qian Sun Li." This made "Bai Jia Xing" a cultural symbol that transcended dynasties, permanently fixed in that historical moment of the early Northern Song Dynasty.
Overseas Influence: A Cultural Link for Chinese Diaspora
It's worth noting that "Bai Jia Xing" also spread across the world with the footsteps of the Chinese diaspora. In Chinese communities in Southeast Asia, North America, and Europe, many Chinese schools still teach "Bai Jia Xing." For overseas Chinese children growing up abroad, learning "Bai Jia Xing" is not just about learning Chinese, but also about building a connection with Chinese culture.
When an ethnic Chinese child born in New York or London begins reciting "Zhao Qian Sun Li, Zhou Wu Zheng Wang," they are engaging in the same cultural ritual as Chinese children a thousand years ago. This cross-temporal cultural transmission is precisely where the most powerful vitality of "Bai Jia Xing" lies.
IV. Appendix: Full Text of "Bai Jia Xing" (with Pinyin)
Below is the complete text of "Bai Jia Xing," totaling 504 surnames, including 444 single-character surnames and 60 double-character surnames.
zhào qián sūn lǐ, zhōu wú zhèng wáng赵 钱 孙 李，周 吴 郑 王
féng chén chǔ wèi, jiǎng shěn hán yáng冯 陈 楚 卫，蒋 沈 韩 杨
zhū qín yóu xǔ, hé lǚ shī zhāng朱 秦 尤 许，何 吕 施 张
kǒng cáo yán huà, jīn wèi táo jiāng孔 曹 严 华，金 魏 陶 姜
qī xiè zōu yù, bǎi shuǐ dòu zhāng戚 谢 邑 喻，柏 水 窦 章
yún sū pān gě, xī fàn péng láng云 苏 潘 葛，奈 范 彭 郎
lǔ wéi chāng mǎ, miáo fèng huá fāng鲁 韦 昌 马，苗 冯 花 方
yú rén yuán liǔ, fēng bào shǐ táng俞 任 袁 柳，酆 鲍 史 唐
fèi lián cén xuē, léi hè ní tāng费 廉 岑 薛，雷 贺 倪 汤
téng yīn luó bì, hǎo wū ān cháng滕 殷 罗 毕，郝 邬 安 常
lè yú shí fù, pí biàn qí kāng乐 于 时 傅，皮 卞 齐 康
wǔ yú yuán bǔ, gù mèng píng huáng伍 余 元 卜，顾 孟 平 黄
hé mù xiāo yǐn, yáo shào zhàn wāng和 穆 萧 尹，姚 邵 湛 汪
qí máo yǔ dí, mǐ bèi míng zāng祁 毛 禹 狄，米 贝 明 臧
jì fú chéng dài, tán sòng máo páng计 伏 成 戴，谈 宋 茅 庞
xióng jì shū qū, xiàng zhù dǒng liáng熊 纪 舒 屈，项 祝 董 梁
dù ruǎn lán mǐn, xí jì má qiáng杜 阮 蓝 闽，席 季 麻 强
jiǎ lù lóu wēi, jiāng tóng yán guō贾 路 娄 危，江 童 颜 郭
méi shèng lín diāo, zhōng xú qiū luò梅 盛 林 刁，钟 徐 丘 骆
gāo xià cài tián, fán hú líng huò高 夏 蔡 田，樊 胡 凌 霍
yú wàn zhī kē, zǎn guǎn lú mò虞 万 支 柯，昃 管 卢 莫
jīng fáng qiú miào, gān xiě yīng zōng经 房 裘 缪，干 解 应 宗
dīng xuān bì dèng, yù shàn háng hóng丁 宣 贲 邓，郁 单 杭 洪
bāo zhū zuǒ shí, cuī jí niǔ gōng包 诸 左 石，崔 吉 钮 龚
chéng jī xíng huá, péi lù róng wēng程 嵇 邢 滑，裴 陆 荣 翁
xún yáng yú huì, zhēn qū jiā fēng荀 羊 于 惠，甄 曲 家 封
ruì yì chǔ jìn, jí bǐng mí sōng芘 羽 储 靳，汲 邴 糸 松
jǐng duàn fù wū, wū jiāo bā gōng井 段 富 巫，乌 焦 巴 弓
mù kuí shān gǔ, chē hóu mì péng牧 隗 山 谷，车 侯 宓 蓬
quán xī bān yǎng, qiū zhòng yī gōng全 郗 班 仰，秋 仲 伊 宫
níng chóu luán bào, gān tōu lì róng宁 仇 栾 暴，甘 钞 厉 戎
zǔ wǔ fú liú, jǐng zhān shù lóng祖 武 符 刘，景 詹 束 龙
yè xìng sī sháo, gào lí jì bó叶 幸 司 韶，郜 黎 蘚 薄
yìn sù bái huái, pú tái cóng è印 宿 白 怀，蒲 邰 从 鄂
suǒ xián jí lài, zhuó lìn tú méng索 咸 籍 赖，卓 蔺 屠 蒙
chí qiáo yīn yù, xū nài cāng shuāng池 乔 阴 郁，胥 能 苍 双
wén shēn dǎng zhái, tán gòng láo páng闻 莘 党 翟，谭 贡 劳 逄
jī shēn fú dǔ, rǎn zǎi lì yōng姬 申 扶 堵，冉 宰 郦 雍
xì qú sāng guì, pú niú shòu tōng郤 璩 桑 桂，濮 牛 寿 通
biān hù yān jì, jiá pǔ shàng nóng边 扈 燕 冀，郏 浦 尚 农
wēn bié zhuāng yàn, chái qú yán chōng温 别 庄 晏，柴 瞿 阎 充
mù lián rú xí, huàn ài yú róng慕 连 茹 习，宦 艾 鱼 容
xiàng gǔ yì shèn, gē liào yǔ zhōng向 古 易 慎，戈 廖 庭 终
jì héng bù dū, gěng mǎn hóng kuāng暨 衡 步 都，耿 满 弘 匡
guó wén kòu guǎng, lù què dōng ōu国 文 寇 广，禄 阙 东 欧
shū wò lì gài, wèi yuè kuí lóng殳 沃 利 蔣，蔚 越 夔 隆
shī gǒng shè niè, cháo gōu áo róng师 巩 厂 聂，晁 勾 敖 融
lěng zī xīn kàn, nà kuí zǔ sòng冷 訾 辛 阚，那 简 饶 空
zēng wú jù shā, niè yǎng yáng fēng曾 毋 沙 乜，养 鞠 须 丰
cháo guān kuǎi xiāng, zhā hòu jīng hóng巢 关 蒯 相，查 后 荆 红
yóu zhú quán lù, gě yì huán gōng游 竹 权 麓，盖 益 桓 公
复姓（60个）：
wàn sì, sī mǎ, shàng guān, ōu yáng万俟 司马 上官 欧阳
xià hóu, zhū gě, wèn rén, dōng fāng夏侯 诸葛 闻人 东方
chì sūn, gōng yáng, tán tái, gōng yě赫连 公羊 澹台 公冶
zōng zhèng, pú yáng, chún yú, chán yú宗政 濮阳 淳于 单于
tài shū, shēn tú, gōng sūn, zhòng sūn太叔 申屠 公孙 仲孙
xuān yuán, lìng hú, zhōng lí, yǔ wén轩辕 令狐 钟离 宇文
zhǎng sūn, mù róng, xiān yú, lǚ qiū长孙 慕容 鲜于 闾丘
sī tú, sī kōng, qí guān, sī kòu司徒 司空 亟官 司寇
zhǎng, dū, zǐ chē, zhuān sūn, duān mù仙 督 子车 颛孙 端木
wū mǎ, gōng xī, qī diāo, yuè zhèng巫马 公西 漆雕 乐正
rǎng sì, gōng liáng, tuò bá, jiā gǔ壤驷 公良 拓跋 夹谷
zǎi fù, gǔ liáng, jìn, chǔ, yán, fǎ宰父 谷梁 晋 楚 闫 法
rǔ, yān, tú, qīn, duàn gān, bǎi lǐ汝 鄭 涂 钦 段干 百里
dōng guō, nán mén, hū yán, guī, hǎi东郭 南门 呼延 归 海
yáng shé, wēi shēng, yuè shuài, gōu, mèng羊舌 微生 岳帅 缑 亢
kòng, hè, lài, qín, liáng qiū, zuǒ qiū亢 后 有 琴 梁丘 左丘
dōng mén, xī mén, shāng, móu, shé东门 西门 商 牟 佘
nán, bó, mǎ, yáng rén, mò, hā, qiáo佴 伯 赏 南宫 墨 哈 谯
dá, nián, ài, yáng, tóng, dì wǔ笪 年 爱 阳 佟 第五
yán, fú, bǎi jiā xìng zhōng言 福 ，百家姓终
Note: "Bai Jia Xing" full text is compiled according to traditional versions, totaling 504 surnames. Each line consists of four characters, with the same rhyme, facilitating memorization and recitation. This form of rhyming verse is an important characteristic of ancient Chinese enlightenment education.
